Turtle Island Decolonized: Mapping Indigenous Names across “North America”
Indigenous place names carry the stories of the land and its people, reflecting the unbroken relationships between them. From the moment Columbus landed at Guanahaní and christened it “San Salvador,” place names became weapons to claim Indigenous land. The erasure of Indigenous peoples from colonial maps was deliberate. Reclaiming these names is part of a movement to revitalize endangered languages, undo centuries of suppression and widespread misinformation, and acknowledge unextinguished Indigenous land tenure.
This map was a collaborative endeavor involving hundreds of Indigenous elders and language-keepers across the continent to accurately document place names for major cities and historical sites. The process of consultation and research for the map was a 9-year effort. In fact, the Decolonial Atlas was started in 2014 initially just to make this map.
Nearly 300 names are compiled here, representing about 150 languages. Some names are from the precolonial era, while others are not quite as old, and in certain cases where the original name has been lost, Indigenous collaborators reconstructed names based on their cultural relationship with that location. Because Indigenous languages are living and dynamic, none of these names are any less “authentic” than others. Embedded in all these names are ancestral words and worldviews. However, some major cities are missing from the map because, as our collaborator DeLesslin George-Warren (Catawba) pointed out, “The fact is that we’ve lost so much in terms of our language and place names. It might be more honest to recognize that loss in the map instead of giving the false notion that the place name still exists for us.”
The names are written as they were shared with us, but may be spelled differently depending on the orthography. Note that some languages, like Lushootseed, do not use capital letters, while others, like Saanich, are written only in capital letters. Most names are spelled in the modern orthographies of their languages, but some, like the Lenape name for Philadelphia, were spelled as recorded by early settlers because it could not be confidently interpreted.
In the context of Indigenous erasure, the global collapse of traditional ecological knowledge, language suppression and revitalization, our hope is that this map will lead to more accurate cultural representation and recognition of Indigenous sovereignty.
Indigenous Names of Major Cities and Historical Sites
The following is a list of every name as it appears on the map. Pronunciation resources can be found by clicking the hyperlinked names.
Acapulco, Gro. Jndá B’iò “Hell river” in Amuzgo. Also called Acapolco “Place of large reeds” in Nahuatl.
Aguascalientes, Ags. Huaxk’anda in Otomí.
Albany, NY Paupautanwuthyauk“Where we built the fire” in Mohican. Refers to a Mohican council that occurred here. Also called Skahnéhtati “Beyond the pines” in Mohawk, and Sganëhdadih “Beyond the pines” in Seneca. Schenectady is a loanword from Mohawk.
Albuquerque, NM Hlidui “Town” in Tiwa. Also called Bee’eldííldahsinil “Two large bells in place” in Navajo, and Arawagêekị in Keres.
Anchorage, AK Dgheyaytnu “Stickleback [Gasterosteus aculeatus] creek” in Dena’ina. Refers to Ship Creek. Also called Qitek “Head of bay” in Alutiiq, and Kicarvik “Anchorage” (an English loan translation) in Yup’ik.
Arviat, NU Arviat / ᐊᕐᕕᐊᑦ “Place of the bowhead whale [Balaena mysticetus]” in Inuktitut. Formerly known as Eskimo Point.
Asheville, NC Togiyasdi / ᏙᎩᏯᏍᏗ “Where they race” in Cherokee. Refers to a rapid section of the French Broad River.
Atherley Narrows Minjikaning “At the fence” in Ojibwe. Refers to the submerged fish wiers officially known as the Mnjikaning Fish Weirs National Historic Site. Also called Ouentaronk “Poles spaced over a distance or Poles that cross” in Wyandot, and Tkarón:to “Tree in the water there” in Mohawk, a name which was later applied to the city of Toronto through the error of French settlers.
Atlanta, GA Pvkvn-Huere “Standing peach [Prunus spp.]” in Muscogee. Refers to a precolonial village at the confluence of Peachtree Creek and the Chattahoochee River. Peach might refer to “Indian peach” rather than the non-native Prunus persica.
Austin, TX Ajehuac Haya’mta “North springs” in Coahuiltecan. Reconstructed. Refers to the northernmost of the four fountain springs (Barton Springs/Austin, Sacred Springs/San Marcos, Comal Springs/New Braunfels, San Pedro Springs/San Antonio). Barton Springs is also called Tza Wan Pupako in Coahuiltecan.
Baker Lake, NU Qamani’tuaq / ᖃᒪᓂ’ᑐᐊᖅ “Big lake joined by a river at both ends” in Inuvialuktun.
Baltimore, MD Potapskut “Place of jutting rocks” in Piscataway. Originally referred to a limestone shelf at the confluence of Rock Creek and the Patapsco River. Also called Gayáhso:dö’ “Standing crosses” in Seneca.
Bangor, ME kkάtaskkik “At/on the water parsnip [Sium suave] ground” in Penobscot. Proper nouns are not capitalized in Penobscot. Also called Kenotaskiyak “Along the Kenduskeag Stream” in Passamaquoddy-Maliseet.
Baton Rouge, LA Iti Homma “Red stick” in Choctaw. Refers to a red painted pole marking the boundary between the Houma and Bayogoula tribal hunting grounds. Baton Rouge is a Choctaw to French loan translation. Also called Amoyixyą “Field bayou” in Biloxi, and Tarkumili “Red stick” in Tunica, a French loan translation.
Belize City, Belize Jolsus “Sandy landing place” in Màaya T’àan. Refers to a precolonial Maya community located near the mouth of the Belize River.
Bethel, AK Mamterilleq “Site of many caches” in Yup’ik.
Big Hidatsa Hiraacá “Village of the big willows [Salix spp.]” in Hidatsa. According to the tribal tradition, the word hiraacá derives from the word “willow”; however, the etymology is not transparent and the similarity to mirahací ‘willows’ inconclusive. The present name Hidatsa was formerly borne by one of the three tribal villages. When the villages consolidated, the name was adopted for the tribe as a whole.
Bighorn Medicine Wheel Annáshisee “Large campsite” in Crow. Also called Hii3einoonotii “Buffalo wheel” in Arapaho. Medicine Mountain is called Awaxaammaaxpée “Holy mountain” in Crow.
Billings, MT Ammalapáshkuua “Where they cut wood” in Crow. Refers to the sawmills of early settlers. Also called É’êxováhtóva “At the sawing place” in Cheyenne, Tebexonoo “Saw” in Arapaho, and ʔóhuutébiɵɔnɔ́ɔ́nh “Where lumber is sawed” in Gros Ventre.
Birmingham, AL Tvlwv Haco “Crazy town” in Muscogee. Refers to a Muscogee village which was destroyed in 1814, in the modern town of Indian Springs Village. Another nearby village on the Cahaba River was known as Wihasha “Place where movers or immigrants reside” in Choctaw and Bread Camp in English.
Bismarck, ND Kwá̢h Wįʔti “Slant village” in Mandan. Refers to a precolonial Mandan village of up to 5,000 that had been occupied since the 1500s and has been reconstructed in Fort Abraham Lincoln State Park. Also called Awadibáhciheesh “Slant village” in Hidatsa, and Tȟaspáŋ Ožú “Apple orchard” in Dakota.
Boise, ID Qapqapa’ála “Making fires with cottonwood [Populus trichocarpa]” in Nez Perce. Also called Páasxa “Sunflower [Helianthus annuus]” in Nez Perce.
Buffalo, NY Došowëh “Between the basswoods [Tilia americana]” in Seneca. Also called Degyohodró:wę: “Where there is a split fork” in Cayuga, and Dyohǫhse:węh in Onondaga.
Cabo San Lucas, B.C.S. Yenecamú in Pericú.
Caguana Kawana “Small meeting place” in Taíno.
Cahokia Ni’ukoⁿska Tsi / 𐓁𐓣𐓪𐓤𐓘^𐓮𐓤𐓘 𐓊𐓣 “Place of the children of the middle waters” in Osage. Reconstructed. Refers to the historical migrations of the five Dhegiha tribes, who were one nation in the distant past. When they separated, those who traveled downstream from Cahokia (the Quapaw) were known as the “Downstream people,” and those who went upstream from Cahokia (the Omaha, Kaw, and Ponca) were known as the “Those going against the current.” The Osage, who were the last remaining Dhegiha tribe in the Cahokia area, refer to themselves as the “Children of the middle waters.”
Calgary, AB Guts’ists’i “Elbow” in Tsuut’ina. The Elbow River is derived from this name. Also called Mohkínsstsisi “Elbow” in Blackfoot, Wichispa Oyade “Elbow town” in Stoney, Otôskwanihk / ᐅᑑᐢᑲᐧᓂᕁ “At the elbow” in Cree, and ʔaknuqtapȼik’ in Ktunaxa.
Camagüey, Cuba Kamaguey in Taíno. Etymology unclear, may mean either “Son of the tree” or “Place of the big house.”
Cambridge Bay, NU Iqaluktuuttiaq / ᐃᖃᓗᒃᑑᑦᑎᐊᖅ “Good fishing place” in Inuvialuktun.
Campeche, Camp. Kàampech “Place of snakes and ticks” in Màaya T’àan.
Cancún, Q.R. Ni’ Su’uk “Point of grass” in Màaya T’àan. Ni’ Su’uk was the original precolonial name, often corrupted as Nizuc. The current name comes from Kaankùum “Nest of snakes.” Kùum is a loanword from Nahuatl comitl ‘jar, pot, kettle.’
Cap-Haïtien, Haiti Guárico in Taíno.
Casa Grande Sivañ Va’aki “Sivañ’s building” in O’odham. Sivañ was the title of one of the two headmen at Casa Grande. To the O’odham the name implies cruelty. Va’aki refers to the type of old buildings that stood at Casa Grande and a few other locations. Also called Naasavi in Hopi.
Casas Grandes Pakimé “Place of big houses” in Rarámuri. Also called Kųgha ‘intsáa “Big house” in Mescalero Apache, reconstructed loan translation. Paquimé was the name recorded by Francisco de Ibarra in 1562.
Cerro De Trincheras Kokolhisigk “Walled-in place” in O’odham.
Chaco Canyon W’aasrba Shak’a “Place of greasewood” in Acoma Keres. Also called He:shoda A’bittsu’lia in Zuni, and Yupkoyvi “Place beyond the horizon” in Hopi. The Navajo name for Pueblo Bonito is Tsébiyaanii’ Áhá “Rock attached as a support beam,” referring the Threatening Rock.
Charleston, SC Kiawah in Cusabo. Refers to both a Cusabo-speaking people and their territory around Charleston Harbor. Also archaically spelled Cayagua.
Charlottesville, VA Mani:sa:p “Shallow water” in Tutelo-Saponi. Refers to the largest precolonial Saponi village, located approximately 5 miles north of downtown Charlottesville on the Rivanna River. The name is often corrupted as Monasukapanough based on an Algonquianization of the Tutelo-Saponi name.
Chetumal, Q.R. Chactemàal “Place of poinciana [Caesalpinia platyloba]” in Màaya T’àan.
Cheyenne, WY Tsėhésemȧhoéve’ho’éno “Cheyenne [Those who are like this] town” in Cheyenne. Reconstructed loan translation. Also called Hitesiino’oowu’ “Cheyenne [tribe] house” in Arapaho.
Chibougamau, QC Uuchepukamuu / ᐆᒉᐳᑲᒨ “Gathering place” in East Cree. Also called Shipuukamuu / ᔑᐴᑯᒨ in South East Cree, and Shipukumuu / ᔑᐳᑯᒨ in North East Cree.
Chicago, IL Šikaakonki “Ramps [Allium tricoccum] place” in Myaamia. Šikaakwa is the Myaamia word for skunk, but it also refers to ramps because of their strong odor. In the case of this toponym, the name likely refers to the plant rather than the animal. Chicago was the site of a Myaamia village in the 1700s. Also called Zhegagoynak in Potawatomi, Gaa-zhigaagwanzhikaag “Place abundant with ramps” in Ojibwe, Ğųšgonąk in Hoocak, Zhigaagoong in Odawa, Maká Otȟúŋwahe “Skunk village” in Dakota, Uⁿditatsí:ye in Wyandot, Sekākoh in Menominee, and Sekiqesi “Ramps” in Shawnee. Chicago is a Myaamia loanword.
Chichen Itza Chi’ch’èen Ìitsha’ “At the mouth of the well of the Itza [tribe]” in Màaya T’àan. May have been known as Wuk Abnal “Seven Bushy Places” in the past.
Chihuahua, Chih. Taba’ráopa “Place over water mines” in Rarámuri. Also called Bakóchi “The river” in Rarámuri, referring to the city’s location on the Río Chuvíscar, and Tsandéézé łą́-yá “Place where (there are) many mules” and Ją́’é łą́-yá “Place where (there are) many donkeys” in Mescalero-Chiricahua Apache.
Chillicothe Chalakatha in Shawnee. Refers to one of the five Shawnee bands, as well as their principal village. As the village changed locations, the name would move with it. Modern Chillicothe, in addition to being one of the Chalakatha village locations, was also the site of Mound City, a center of the earlier Hopewell society, and Adena Mound, namesake of the even earlier Adena culture. The original name used by the Hopewell people is forgotten. Also called Tataręʔręʔ “Leaning bank” in Wyandot.
Chilpancingo, Gro. Kra’áá in Tlapaneco. Also called Chilpancingo “Smalls wasp nest” in Nahuatl.
Chisasibi, QC Chisaasiipii / ᒋᓵᓰᐲ “Great river” in East Cree. Also called Chisasibi / ᓯᓵᓯᐱ in Inuktitut, a Cree loanword.
Churchill Falls, NL Patshishetshuanau “Where the current makes clouds of vapour” in Innu.
Cincinnati, OH Yatapon’hokwiki “Landing place” in Shawnee. Reconstructed loan translation from other Indigenous sources. Also called Honöta:ogwëh “Their landing place (for boats)” in Seneca, and Kyutahuwaʔtaʔ “Landing place” in Wyandot.
Ciudad de Guatemala, Guatemala Kaminäq Juyu’ “Mounds of our ancestors” in Kaqchikel. Refers to Kaminaljuyu, a precolonial Mayan city whose original name is unknown. The valley is also called Armit in Kaqchikel, a loanword from the early Spanish name Valle de la Ermita. Guatemala is a loanword from the Nahuatl name Cuauhtemallan “Wood pile place.”
Ciudad de México, CDMX Mexihco Tenochtitlan “Navel of the moon, place of the nopal [Opuntia spp.]” in Nahuatl. Mexico is derived from this name. Also called ‘Monda in Otomi. The Nahuatl gylph combined pictograms for stone (tetl) and cactus (nochtli).
Ciudad Obregón, Son. Kahe’eme “The one who does not stop to drink water” in Yaqui. Refers to Cajemé, a prominent Yaqui leader in the 19th century.
Cleveland, OH Gayáha’geh “On the stream” in Seneca. Refers to the Cuyahoga River. Also called Kahiónhwakon “In the stream” in Mohawk.
Cliff Palace of Mesa Verde Múukwi-gani-pʉ̱ “Cliff-dweller [Anasazi] house ruins” in Ute. Also called He:shoda Wo’pana in Zuni, and Anaasází “Ancient enemy” in Navajo.
Coatzacoalcos, Ver. Coatzacualco “At the snake pyramid” in Nahuatl. Also called Niiwa’tznaax in Oluta Popoluca.
Colima, Col. Coliman “Place conquered by our grandparents” in Nahuatl.
Copán Uxwitik “Three witik” in Ch’orti’. Original name documented in precolonial Mayan hieroglyphs. The meaning of witik remains unclear.
Culiacán, Sin. Colhuahcan “Place of the owners [caretakers] of ancestors” in Nahuatl. The Nahuatl glyph depicts a twisted hill.
Dallas, TX Ika:khac Ne:harih “Where the white rock is” in Wichita. Reconstructed. Refers to the chalky banks of many local waterways, at least eight of which are now called “White Rock Creek.” The settler-era city was founded at a “white rock crossing” of the Trinity River.
Dawson, YT Tr’ondëk “Hammerstone water” in Hän. Tr’ondëk is the Hän name for the Klondike River, and by extension, Dawson. The name refers to stones for driving stakes into the river bed for salmon weirs. Dawson is located across the river from Tr’ochëk, a traditional Hän fishing camp.
Denver, CO Niineniiniicie “Tallow river” in Arapaho. Refers to the South Platte River. Also called Tia-pʉ̱ in Ute, and Ȟeská Otȟúŋwahe “White mountains [Rockies] town” in Lakota.
Des Moines, IA Chína Ñí Minké “Raccoon [Procyon lotor] river town” in Chiwere. Reconstructed. Refers to Ñí Minké, the Des Moines River.
Detroit, MI Wawiatenang “Place of the whirlpool” in Potawatomi. Also called Waawiyaataanong “At the curved shores” in Ojibwe, Yaⁿdataye in Wyandot, Kikawka-mackee in Shawnee, and Tioshahróntie “The mouth of the river goes off into the distance” in Mohawk.
Duluth, MN Onigamiinsing “At the little portage” in Ojibwe. Refers to the portage across Minnesota Point which has been replaced by the Duluth Ship Canal.
Durango, Dgo. Korian in Tepehuano. Etymology uncertain.
Edmonton, AB Amiskwâciy-wâskahikan / ᐊᒥᐢᒁᒋᐩ ᐚᐢᑲᐦᐃᑲᐣ “Beaver [Castor canadensis] lodge house” in Plains Cree. Also called Titunga “Big house” in Stoney, Omahkoyis “Big house” in Blackfoot, Kuę́ Nedhé in Dënesųłiné, and Kazhįodį́la in Dene K’e.
El Paso, TX – Juárez, Chih. Tsé Táhu’aya “Rock jutting into the water” in Mescalero-Chiricahua Apache. Refers to the Rio Grande / Río Bravo.
El Tajín T’ajín “Of thunder” in Totonaca.
Elko, NV Natakkoa “Rocks piled on one another” in Shoshoni. Also called Atakkuh in Shoshoni.
Ensenada, B.C. Uwa’ ’Maay “Great house” in Kiliwa. Also called Pa Tai “Great house” in Kumeyaay.
Etowah Etvlwv “Town” in Muscogee. Although Etowah was inhabited by Muscogee people, some have also proposed that Etowah is derived from a Cherokee name.
Eugene, OR Chanchífin “Place of the Anchífin people” in Kalapuyan. Refers to a precolonial Anchífin Kalapuya village at the confluence of the Willamette and McKenzie rivers.
Eureka, CA Jaroujiji “Where you sit and rest” in Wiyot. Also called Dahwilahł-ding “It floats along on top-place” in Hupa.
Fairbanks, AK Tr’achenhnił’ode “Where a flat extends out” in Lower Tanana. Also called Ch’elat’uudze’ Yex “Bark house” in the Salcha dialect, referring to cabins made of unpeeled spruce logs.
Farmington, NM Tóta’ “In between water” in Navajo. Refers to the city’s location between bodies of water to its east, south, and west.
Flagstaff, AZ Pasiwvi “Place of instruction” in Hopi. Refers to the Elden Pueblo and vicinity. Also called Kinłání “Many houses” in Navajo, and Wii Hagnbaj in Havasupai.
Fort McMurray, AB Nistowayâhk / ᓂᐢᑐᐘᔮᕽ “At the merging of three rivers” in Plains Cree.
Fort McPherson, NT Teet’łit Zheh “At the head of the waters” in Gwich’in.
Fort Nelson, BC Tthek’eneh Kų́ę́ “Rocky river house” in Dene K’e. Refers to the Muskwa River.
Fort Smith, NT Tthebacha “Beside the rapids” in Dënesųłiné. Also called Omahamow-sîpiy / ᐅᒪᐦᐊᒧᐤ ᓰᐱᐩ “This river around here” and Kaskewēwin “Portage trail” in Cree, and Ttthembaachah in Dene K’e.
Fort St. John, BC Gat Taah Kwą “House among the spruce trees [Picea glauca]” in Dane-zaa.
Fort Wayne, IN Kiihkayonki “Place of the elders” in Myaamia. Often corrupted as Kekionga. Refers to the precolonial capital of the Myaamia.
Fredericton, NB Sitansisk “At little St. Anne’s” in Passamaquoddy-Maliseet. Refers to the early colonial name, Pointe-Sainte-Anne.
Gjoa Haven, NU Uqšuqtuuq / ᐅᖅᓱᖅᑑᖅ “Lots of fat” in Inuvialuktun.
Grand Rapids, MI Wasetenak “Far away place” in Potawatomi. Also called Gaginathwenak “At the place of long rapids” in Potawatomi, and Gaa-ginwaajiwanaang “At the place of long rapids” in Ojibwe. The mile-long rapids on Grand River have disappeared because of dam construction.
Grand Village of the Natchez Wvlt Kvhvp “White [luminous] town” in Natchez. Kvhvp “white” refers to its major status, not white people. Wvlt Kvhvp also refers to Emerald Mound. As the village changed locations from the earlier Emerald Mound location, the name moved with it. Also called Tashihkalpalkahal’ukini “The Natchez town” in Tunica.
Grande Prairie, AB Masko-sîpiy / ᒪᐢᑯ ᓰᐱᐩ “Bear creek” in Plains Cree.
Great Falls, MT Áóhtako “Waterfall” in Blackfoot. Also called Bilitxisée “Big waterfalls” in Crow, and ʔɔ́hkiníɵʔa “Where there is a waterfall” in Gros Ventre.
Green Bay, WI Pūcīhkit “Bay that smells of rotting” in Menominee. Refers to a large slaughtering house that smelled of rotting meat. Also called Kanatá·ke “On the town” in Oneida, Boojwiikwedong “Horn [-shaped] bay” in Ojibwe, Kwikwiyak “Place of ending water corner [bay]” and Bojikwét in Potawatomi, and Móogašúc “Red banks” in Hoocak.
Guadalajara, Jal. Atemaxac “Place where the water forks” in Nahuatl.
Guayabo de Turrialba Guayabo in Huetar.
Halifax, NS Kjipuktuk “The great harbour” in Míkmawísimk.
Hay River, NT Xátł’odehchee “Hay river” in Dene K’e. Also called Hátł’odesche “Muddy confluence” in Denesuline, and Maskosiya Sīpīy “Hay river” in Cree.
Hermosillo, Son. Hezitmísoj “True settlement” in Seri. Also called Hasoj Icot “Place between rivers” in Seri, and Pitiahaquím “Place surrounded by streams,” Peesio and Pi’itikuni in Yaqui.
Houston, TX Šakotayišol Nunuš “Bear [Ursus americanus] creek town” in Atakapa. Reconstructed. Refers to the prehistoric Bear Creek Mound which was the main Atakapa landmark in the area until it was bulldozed in the 1960s.
Idaho Falls, ID Dembimbosaage “Stone bridge” in Shoshoni.
Ilulissat, Greenland Ilulissat “Icebergs” in Kalaallisut. Formerly known as Jakobshavn.
Indianapolis, IN Ceenkwihtanonki “Place where there is a roaring river” in Myaamia. Refers to the White River.
Inuksuk Point Inuksugalait / ᐃᓄᒃᓱᒐᓚᐃᑦ “Where there are many Inuksuit [those which act in the capacity of humans] [stone cairns]” in Inuktitut.
Inuvik, NT Inuuvik / ᐃᓅᕕᒃ “Place of people” in Inuvialuktun. Also called Inuuvik in Inupiaq, and Nihtat Zheh “Mixed town” in Gwich’in.
Iqaluit, NU Iqaluit / ᐃᖃᓗᐃᑦ “Place of many fish” in Inuktitut. Formerly known as Frobisher Bay.
Jackson, MS Chisha Foka“Among the post oaks [Quercus stellata]” in Choctaw.
Jacksonville, FL Wakv Pvlvtkv “Cow [Bos taurus] spilling” in Muscogee-Seminole. Often corrupted as Wacca Pilatka. Seminole wakv is a loanword from the Spanish vaca [cow]. It was the Spanish who introduced cows to the region. The early English name for Jacksonville, Cowford, is derived from this name. Jacksonville may have also been the site of Ossachite, a precolonial Timucuan community.
Juneau, AK Dzántik’i Héeni “River at the base of the flounder [Hippoglossus stenolepis]” in Lingít. Refers to Gold Creek, which flows from a mountain called Dzánti “The flounder.”
Kamloops, BC Tk’emlúps “Where the rivers meet” in Secwepemctsín. Refers to the confluence of the North and South Thompson Rivers. Kamloops is a Secwepemctsín loanword.
Kansas City, MO Nishóje Táⁿmaⁿ “Cloudy water [Missouri River] town” in Kansa. Also called Skwápiegi “On the river bank” in Shawnee, Nisho’dse ṭoⁿwoⁿ “Smoky river town” in Osage, and Chína Ñíšúje “Muddy river town” in Chiwere.
Kay-Nah-Chi-Wah-Nung Genwaajiwanaang “Place of the long currents” in Ojibwe.
Keet Seel Kįts’iil “Broken house” in Navajo. Also called Bish’lankwin He’shonden Imk’oskwi’a “Inscription house” in Zuni.
Kelowna, BC kiʔláw̓naʔ “Male grizzly bear [Ursus arctos]” in Nsyilxcən. Kelowna is a Nsyilxcən loanword.
Kiix̣in Kiix̣in in Nuu-chah-nulth. Refers the sound of the crashing waves at the base of the village site.
Kingston, Jamaica Iwana “Iguana [Cyclura collei]” in Taíno. The early Spanish ranch in the area was called Liguanea, believed to come from “La Iguana,” the Taino sacred lizard. Today this area is known as the Liguanea Plains.
Kingston, ON Ken’tarókwen “Clay taken out of the water” in Mohawk. Also called Kanatókwen “Town out of water” and Tkaristó:ton “There are steel bars standing there” in Mohawk.
Kittigazuit Kitigaaryuk in Inuvialuktun. Kittigazuit was the location of the largest seasonal gathering of Inuit for centuries. The exact meaning of the name Kitigaaryuk is no longer remembered, but elders say that it probably describes the nature of the river bank.
Kituwah Giduwa / ᎩᏚᏩ in Cherokee. Etymology unknown.
Klamath Falls, OR ʔiWLaLLoonʔa “Is all along the top” in Klamath.
Knoxville, TN Kohvdadahla / ᎪᎲᏓᏓᎳ “Mulberry [Morus rubra] grove” in Cherokee.
Kodiak, AK Sun’aq “Schooner” in Alutiiq. Loanword from the Russian шхуна (schooner), referring to the 18th-19th century Russian shipyard in Kodiak Harbor.
Kotzebue, AK Qikiqtaġruk “Big island” in Iñupiatun.
Kuujjuaq, QC Kuujjuaq / ᑰᔾᔪᐊᖅ “Great river” in Inuttitut. Refers to the Koksoak River. Formerly known as Fort Chimo.
La Ceiba, Honduras Gumaga “Ceiba tree [Ceiba pentandra]” in Garifuna.
La Habana, Cuba Avan in Guanajatabey. Some speculate that the name derives from a cacique named Habaguanex, or the Taino word sabana (the origin of “savannah” in English). In a letter that Columbus wrote returning home after his first voyage, he describes Cuba and writes “One of the provinces is called Avan.”
La Paz, B.C.S. Airapí in Guaycura.
Lansing, MI Nkwéthwenak “Where two streams meet” in Potawatomi.
Las Vegas, NV Páa-rʉmpa-vi̱ “Water mouth” in Southern Paiute. Refers to the Las Vegas Big Springs, the site of a major precolonial Southern Paiute camp. Also called Naʼazhǫǫsh Hátsoh in Navajo.
Lethbridge, AB Sikóóhkotoki “Black stone [coal]” in Blackfoot. Also called ʔakwum in Ktunaxa.
Lexington, KY Shkipakithi’ki “Where it’s blue-green all over” in Shawnee. While the name Eskippakaithiki was documented referring to the “Indian Old Fields” in present-day Clark County, the Bluegrass region’s largest Indigenous village at the time, it likely referred not just to the village, but the entire region. It might refer to big bluestem grass [Andropogon gerardi], but certainly not Kentucky bluegrass [Poa pratensis] which is non-native. The Bluegrass region is also called Kuhkútęⁿde in Wyandot, Gëdá:geh “At the meadow” in Seneca, and Kahentà:ke in Mohawk.
Little Rock, AR I’i-zhinka “Little rock” in Quapaw. Reconstructed loan translation.
London, ON Baketigweyaang “At the side-flow” in Ojibwe.
Los Angeles, CA Yaanga in Tongva. Refers to a precolonial Tongva village located in modern downtown Los Angeles. It may mean “Twig place,” but the etymology is uncertain. Also called Iyakha “Poison oak [Toxicodendron diversilobum]” in Luiseño, and Yangna in Serrano.
Los Guachimontones Teotzintlan “Place of the divine” in Nahuatl.
Los Mochis, Sin. Mótchikim “(Terrestrial) Turtles” in Mayo. Refers to the flowers of hierba de la hormiga [Boerhavia coccinea]. Also called Móochim in Mayo.
Louisville, KY Kwashkwi’taki “Waterfall” in Shawnee. Reconstructed loan translation from other Indigenous sources. Refers to the Falls of the Ohio. Also called Kyúⁿdám’ʔⁿdeh “Where the river drops” in Wyandot, and Tiohná:wate “It is a strong current there” in Mohawk.
Macon, GA Oki Molki “Bubbling water” in Hitchiti. Refers to the precolonial community around the Ocmulgee National Monument.
Madison, WI Teejóp “Four lakes” in Hoocak. Refers to Lakes Mendota, Monona, Waubesa, and Kegonsa.
Managua, Nicaragua Managua in Chorotega. Various Indigenous etymologies for Managua have been proposed from the Chorotega, Nahuatl, and Taíno languages, but none have been agreed upon as it cannot be confidently interpreted.
Manzanillo, Col. Tlacotla “Place of the conch shells” in Purépecha. Also called Caxitlan and Cozcatlan in Nahuatl.
Mazatlán, Sin. Mazatlan “Place of deer [Odocoileus virginianus]” in Nahuatl. The Nahuatl glyph depicts the head of a deer.
Medford, OR Sa’tʰkawkʰ “Open place” in Takelma. Refers to the flat plain of the Bear Creek Valley.
Medicine Hat, AB Saaamssin “Sacred headdress” in Blackfoot. Likely refers to a precolonial winter camp located on Seven Persons Creek, where a landscape feature along the creek looked like a headdress.
Memphis, TN Sakti Llafa’ “Furrowed bank” in Chickasaw. Refers to Chickasaw Bluff. The Chickasaw name for the Mississippi River is Sakti Llafa’ Okhina’ “Furrowed bank river.” Also called Sakti Hla̱fa “Furrowed bank” in Choctaw, and Tsundatalesvyi / ᏧᏂᏓᏔᏒᏱ “Where pieces fall off” in Cherokee.
Mérida, Yuc. Jo’ “Place of five” in Màaya T’àan.
Mexicali, B.C. Lakay Chaa’m “Town of the cachanillas [Pluchea sericea]” in Cucapá. Also called Juáa Ñimaat in Kiliwa. Residents of Mexicali are commonly called Cachanillas in Spanish.
Miami, FL Tekestv “People of the good earth” in Tequesta. Likely referred to the precolonial village located at the Miami Circle. Because the Tequesta language went extinct before it developed a writing system, this name is written in the orthography of the Muscogee-Seminole language. Miami is a loanword from the Tequesta name Mayaimi “big water,” referring to Lake Okeechobee.
Milwaukee, WI Tešišik “Bad lake” in Hoocąk. Refers to a bad event that occurred here. Also called Mnenak “Taken by force” in Potawatomi, Mino-akiing “At the good land” in Ojibwe, and Ma͞ena͞ewah “Some misfortune happens” in Menominee.
Minneapolis, MN Bdeóta (Othúŋwe) “Many lakes (town)” in Dakota. Also called Gakaabikaang “At the Waterfall” in Ojibwe, and Mąąnįco Horuzra “Place where you take blue clay from” in Hoocąk.
Minot, ND Maagagaʔáashish “Plum [Prunus americana] creek” in Hidatsa.
Missoula, MT nłʔay “Place of small bull trout [Salvelinus confluentus]” in Salish. Proper nouns are not capitalized in Salish. Refers to the confluence of Rattlesnake Creek and the Clark Fork River. Also called Hnme’suuli in Coeur d’Alene, and Tuhuⱡnana in Ktunaxa.
Mobile, AL Moeli “To paddle” in Choctaw. Refers to the Mobila tribe that lived on Mobile Bay until joining the Choctaw in the mid-18th century. Mobile is a Choctaw loanword.
Moncton, NB Epetkutogoyek “The bend” in Mi’kmaq. Refers to the bow-and-arrow-like bend of the Petitcodiac River, which is derived from this name.
Monte Albán Dani Beedxe’ “Jaguar [Panthera onca] mountain” in Zapoteco del Valle. Also called Dani Baán “Jaguar mountain” in Zapoteco, Ocelotepec “Jaguar mountain” in Nahuatl, and Yucucúi “Green hill” in Mixteco.
Monterrey, N.L. Wama’k Meska’m “Far from a house” in Esto’k Gna. Also called Tlahtoantepec “King mountain” in Nahuatl, derived from the Spanish name.
Montgomery, AL Ihaani Homma “Red earth” in Alabama. Refers to a precolonial Alabama village also called Ekvn Cate “Red earth” in Muscogee, often corrupted as Ikanatchati.
Montréal, QC Tiohtià:ke “Broken in two” in Mohawk. Refers to the St. Lawrence River splitting at the Île de Montréal. Also called Molian in Western Abenaki, Mooniyaang “First stopping place” in Ojibwe, Muuliyaau / ᒨᓕᔮᐤ in Cree, Te Ockiai in Wendat, Moriak in Atikamekw, and Munianit in Innu. Was the site of a precolonial Iroquoian village reportedly called Hochelaga.
Moosonee, ON Môsoniy / ᒨᓱᓂᔾ “Town upstream from Moose River estuary” in Swampy Cree.
Morelia, Mich. Uaianarhio “Long and flat knoll” in Purépecha. Refers to the precolonial community of Guayangareo. Also called Animaxe in Mazahua.
Nain, NL Nunainguk / ᓄᓇᐃᖑᒃ in Inuttitut.
Nashville, TN Dagvnawelahi / ᏓᎬᎾᏪᎳᎯ “Mussel liver place” in Cherokee. Likely refers to the threeridge mussel [Amblema plicata].
Nassau, Bahamas Nema “Middle water” in Taíno. Nema is the Lucayan Taíno name for the whole of New Providence Island.
New Orleans, LA Bvlbancha “Place where many different languages are spoken” in Choctaw. Also called Tą Nithąąyą “Big town” in Biloxi, Nunuš “Big village” in Atakapa, and Tonrɔwahal’ukini “The white man town” in Tunica.
New York, NY Manaháhtaan “The place where wood is gathered to make bows” in Lenape. Refers to a stand of hickory [Carya ovata] trees in Lower Manhattan. The locative form in Lenape is Manahahtáanënk. Also called Ka’nón:no “Thick with pipes [smoke stacks]”, Kanorónsne “Place of expensive things”, and Tkaná:to “A town in water there” in Mohawk, Ganǫ́:nyo’ “Expensive” in Cayuga, Tganö:do’ in Seneca, and Monokuhtaunuk in Mohican.
Ninstints SG̱ang Gwaay Llnagaay “Wailing island village” in Haida. So named because a broken-hearted woman wept on its southern shore, eventually transforming into a rock. At certain tides, a hole in this rock continues wailing to this day. This word is often mistaken for “SGan”, the red cod fish. A Haida village occupied this site until about 1880. Also called Nang Sdins Llnagaay “One Who is Two.”
Nome, AK Sitnasuaq “Place to rest” in Iñupiatun. Also called Citnacuaq in Yup’ik.
Norfolk, VA Skicoak in Carolina Algonquian. Etymology unknown.
Nuuk, Greenland Nuuk “Cape” in Kalaallisut. Formerly known as Godthåb.
Oaxaca, Oax. La’a in Zapoteco del Valle. Also called Ñuu Ñunduva in Mixteco, Lulá’ in Isthmus Zapotec, Huaxyacac “At the guaje tree [Leucaena leucocephala]” in Nahuatl, and Wahk’wihm in Mixe.
Oklahoma City, OK Joáuide “Many tipis” in Kiowa. Also called Tih-kouuhoe’ee “When they show off something” in Arapaho, Ma’xepóno’e in Cheyenee. Chína Chége Itúⁿ “New foremost city” in Chiwere, Há7ímay Kúnámmit’ah “Big town” in Caddo, and Ûkuhûwasiri in Pawnee.
Old Kasaan Gasa’áan in Haida. Derived from the Lingít name Kasa’aan “Pretty town.” The Chief Son-i-Hat Whale House is known as Náay Í’waans “Great house” in Haida. New Kasaan is called Gasa’áan G̱áwtlaa in Haida.
Omaha, NE Umóⁿhoⁿ Tóⁿwoⁿ “Upstream town” in Omaha. Also called Uwaahawiru “Among the Omaha” in Pawnee, Chína Umáhaⁿ “Upsteam town” in Chiwere, and Oⁿmóⁿhoⁿ Táⁿmaⁿ “Upstream town” in Kansa. Omaha is an Omaha loanword.
Ottawa, ON Odàwàng “To buy” in Algonquin. Also called Odaawaa “Odawa [tribe]” in Ojibwe, Otawak in Atikamekw, Utauat in Innu, and Utiwaa / ᐅᑎᐧᐋ in Cree. The area around Chaudière Falls is also called Asinabka “Place of glare rock” in Algonquin, and Kanà:tso “Pail in the water” in Mohawk.
Pachuca, Hgo. Nju̱nthe “Water mill” in Otomí. Also called Pachyohcan in Nahuatl.
Palenque Lakamha’ “Big water” in Ch’ol. Original name documented in precolonial Maya hieroglyphs. Likely refers to the fast-flowing creeks and waterfalls that flow onto the valley below. In its earliest period, it may have been known as Toktan. While the city was known as Lakamha, the kingdom was called Bàakʼ “Bone.” Also called Palénke in Ch’ol.
Panamá, Panamá Panamá “Abundance of fish” in Cueva. In Kuna, Wagneg means “City,” but that does not refer exclusively to Ciudad de Panamá.
Pecos Pueblo P`ǽ Kilâ “Place above the water” in Jemez.
Philadelphia, PA Coaquannock in Lenape. As with many corrupted place-names, Coaquannock was recorded by early colonists with a variety of spellings. In modern Lenape orthography, it might be rendered Kuwekwënunk “Grove of tall pines,” but depending on the spelling, it could have 8 different meanings, which is why it could not confidently be interpreted. Shoxamekwsing “The place of eels [Anguilla rostrata],” another precolonial Lenape village, was located on the Delaware River within the modern city. Also called Tsi kanataien’kó:wa “At the great town” in Mohawk, and Tganödayë́’go:wa:h “Big town” in Seneca, and Tkanötayë’kúwá “Big town” in Mingo.
Phoenix, AZ Vakpaly “Place of many houses” in Maricopa. Also called Ski:kigk “Place of many houses” in O’odham, Hoozdoh “Warm area” in Navajo, and Hachpa ‘Anya Nyava in Mojave. Phoenix is also the site of Pueblo Grande, a precolonial Hohokam community.
Pierre, SD C̆húŋkaške “Fort” in Lakota. Refers to Fort Pierre Chouteau, an early trading post of the American Fur Company.
Pittsburgh, PA Hothawikamiki “By the yellow water” in Shawnee. First documented referring to early Fort Pitt. Also called Jaödeogë’ “Between two rivers” in Seneca, and Tyaötékë’ in Mingo. A Lenape village called Shannopin Town was also located in present-day East Liberty.
Pond Inlet, NU Mittimatalik / ᒥᑦᑎᒪᑕᓕᒃ “Resting place [grave] of (an Inuk named) Mittima” in Inuktitut. Mittima’s identity is no longer remembered.
Port-au-Prince, Haiti Xaraguá (Sharagua) / Cahay / Behecchio “Lake district” in Taíno.
Portland, ME məkíhkanək “At the fish hook” in Penobscot. Proper nouns are not capitalized in Penobscot. Often corrupted as Machigonne.
Portland, OR Wahkshin “Dam” in Chinook. Refers to a precolonial village located near the mouth of the Willamette at St. Johns. Also called Polhen in Chinook, and Pútɬən in Cowlitz, an English loanword.
Poverty Point Tamarɔha “Cave in a mountain” in Tunica. Refers to the belief that the people of Poverty Point originated in a cave beneath Mound A.
Prince Albert, SK Kistapinânihk / ᑭᐢᑕᐱᓈᓂᕽ “At the important resting place” in Plains Cree.
Prince George, BC Lheidli / ᘱᐉᘬ “They flow into each other” in Dakeł. Refers to the confluence of the Nechako and Fraser Rivers.
Prince Rupert, BC Kxeen “Place of foam” in Sm’algyax. Refers to the reverse tides of the Butze Rapids. Kaien Island is a Sm’algyax loanword.
Prudhoe Bay, AK Saġvaaniqtuuq “Strong current” in Iñupiatun. Refers to the Sagavanirktok River.
Puebla, Pue. Cuetlaxcoapan “Where snakes shed their skin” in Nahuatl. Also called Ndema in Otomi, Jndaaquitsö’ in Amuzgo, Michambaa in Tlapaneco, and Yicutindu in Cuicateco.
Puerto Cabezas, Nicaragua Bilwi in Mískito. Bilwi might be derived from the Mayangna language, possibly meaning “Molting snake.”
Puvirnituq, QC Puvirnituq / ᐳᕕᕐᓂᑐᖅ “Place where there is a smell of rotten meat” in Inuttitut.
Qaanaaq, Greenland Qaanaaq in Inuktun. Formerly known as Thule.
Qaqortoq, Greenland Qaqortoq “White” in Kalaallisut. Formerly known as Julianehåb.
Québec, QC Kebek “Obstructed current” in Western Abenaki. Refers to the narrows of the St. Lawrence River. Also called Teatontari “Narrows” in Wendat, Tekiatenontarí:kon “Two mountains meet” in Mohawk, Kchi Kibek Odana “Big Québec city” in Western Abenaki, Gepeg in Mi’kmaq, Uepishtikueiau in Innu, and Kupaak / ᑯᐹᒃ in Cree. Was the site of a St. Lawrence Iroquoian village reportedly called Stadacona. The name Canada is derived from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word Kanáta “Village,” referring to Stadacona.
Querétaro, Qro. Ndämxei “Ball game” in Otomi.
Quetzaltenango, Guatemala Xelajú Noj “Below ten mountains” in K’iche’. Often shortened to Xelajú and Xela. Also called T-xol Jub’ in Mam, Xe’lajuuj in Achi, and Xelaju’ in Tz’utujil.
Rankin Inlet, NU Kangiqłiniq / ᑲᖏᖅᖠᓂᖅ “Deep bay” in Inuktitut.
Rapid City, SD Mni Lúzahaŋ (Otȟúŋwahe) “Swift water (town)” in Lakota. Refers to Rapid Creek. Also called Háeohémahpe “Rapid water” in Cheyenne.
Red Deer, AB Wâskesiw-sîpiy / ᐚᐢᑫᓯᐤ ᓰᐱᐩ “Elk [Cervus canadensis] river” in Plains Cree. Also called Ponokaisisahtaa “Red deer” in Blackfoot.
Redding, CA Pʰas Puysono “Cliff east-nose” in Wintu. The Wintu name of the place depends on the position of the speaker. Also called Nolti Puyda(a)l “toward south-east” (used to be a village at a little dry creek entering the Sacramento at the State Highway bridge), Pʰas Nomsono “cliff west-nose”, and Chuuq Buli (buli meaning “hill, peak”, chuuq is without etymology) in Wintu.
Regina, SK Oskana Kâ-asastêki / ᐅᐢᑲᓇ ᑳ ᐊᓴᐢᑌᑭ “Where the bones are piled” in Plains Cree. Refers to the large amounts of buffalo bones on the banks of Wascana Creek. Wascana is derived from this name. Also called Huhúžubina “Buffalo [Bison bison] bones” in Assinboine, and Okanan Gaa-izhi-ategin “Place where the bones are set (in a pile) a certain way” in Ojibwe.
Reno, NV Oodeno “Reno” in Washoe. English loanword. Also called Oodeno in Northern Paiute.
Reynosa, Tamps. – McAllen, TX Tompacuas Wama’k “Raccoon [Procyon lotor] village” in Esto’k Gna. Refers to a precolonial village of the Pakawa tribe in modern Hidalgo County, TX.
Richmond, VA Pakwacan / ᐸᑿᐦᒐᓐ “Shallow Rapids” in Powhatan. Refers to the precolonial village located on the Falls of the James River which was the principle village of the tribe. Also called Powihetan in Carolina Algonquian.
Rochester, NY Ga’sgöhsagöh “At the waterfall” in Seneca. Refers to High Falls. Major nearby precolonial villages included Ganödagë:n (Ganondagan) and Dejódiha:’kdö:h (Totiakton).
Sacramento, CA Nisĕm Pi˙wĕna˙n “We are the valley side” in Nisenan. Also called Pusunem:u in Miwok, referring to a precolonial village corrupted as Pujune or Pusune. Other nearby precolonial villages included Sekumne (Sek) and Tsamak (Sama).
Saguenay, QC Shekutimi “The end of the deep water” in Innu. Chicoutimi is derived from this name.
Saint John, NB Menahqesk “Gentle river at the large bay” in Passamaquoddy-Maliseet. Various etymologies have been proposed. According to some, Mena refers to gentle and slow flowing of the river, and Qesk refers to the entering of a large opening to the ocean. Also called Měnagwĕs “Where they collect the dead seals” in Mi’kmaq.
Salt Lake City, UT Soonkahni “Many houses” in Shoshoni. Also called Niico’ooowu’ “It is salty” in Arapaho, and Soriki in Southern Paiute.
San Antonio, TX Yana Wana “Sacred waters” in Payaya Coahuiltecan.
San Bernadino, CA Wa’aachnga in Tongva. Possibly related to the Tongva word for juniper, waa’at.
San Cristóbal de las Casas, Chis. Jobel “Place in the clouds” in Tzotzil. Also called Jobel in Tzeltal, Jobel in Ch’ol, and Majamu’cojmo in Zoque.
San Diego, CA Tepacul Watai “Stacked big” in Kumeyaay. Refers to the settler-era city. Also called Pushuyi in Luiseño, and ‘Amat Santiak in Mojave. The adjacent city of Tijuana is called Ipaa Cha’amuí in Kiliwa.
San Francisco, CA Yelamu in Ohlone. Refers to both an Ohlone people and their territory, which is roughly conterminous with modern San Francisco. Also called Uthíshiip “Coast extreme” in Karuk, ‘Ahkʰalanto in Southern Pomo, and Meyhínawela in Wappo.
San Jose, CA Thámien in Ohlone. The Ohlone name for the Guadalupe River has been reconstructed as Thámien Rummay.
San José, Costa Rica Parrosquirrís in Huetar. Refers to the area now known as Curridabat.
San Juan, Puerto Rico Gueynabo “River by the sun” in Taíno. Also near the Taino village of Haimanio. Guaynabo is a Taíno loanword.
San Luis Potosí, S.L.P. Nkiɛꞌ Mbiu: “Valley of nopales [Opuntia spp.]” in Pame. Also called Nmiñ’u in Otomi.
San Pedro Sula, Honduras Lageira Féduru “Peter town” in Garifuna. Loanword from Pedro, the Spanish name for Saint Peter. Sula might be derived from Usula, an Indigenous word meaning “Valley of birds.”
San Salvador, El Salvador Kustitan “Place of jewels” in Nawat. This name is rendered as Cozcatlan in Nahuatl and Cuscatlán in Spanish.
Santa Fe, NM ˀOgap’o:geh “White shell water place” in Tewa. Also called Hǫ́lp’ȍno “Shell river” in Northern Tiwa, Yootó “Bead water” in Navajo, and Yyu’tu in Mescalero Apache.
Santiago de Cuba, Cuba Bayakitiri “Small tree” in Taíno. Refers to a cacicazgo in the vicinity of Santiago. From baya “tree” and quitiri “small.”
Santo Domingo, República Dominicana Yukayeke Haina “Many nets village” in Taíno.
Saskatoon, SK Misâskwatôminihk / ᒥᓵᐢᑿᑑᒥᓂᕽ “At the place of saskatoon berries [Amelanchier alnifolia]” in Plains Cree. Also called Wį́bazoką Wákpa “Saskatoon berry river” in Assinboine.
Sault Ste. Marie, ON Baawitigong “At the cascades” in Ojibwe. Refers to the St. Marys Rapids, which are known as Baawiting “In the rapids” in Ojibwe. Also called Bawating “Place of rapids” in Potawatomi, and Baawitigoong in Odawa.
Savannah, GA Yvmvklv in Muscogee. Refers to the Yamacraw, a band of Lower Creek people, and their principal village. Yamacraw Bluff is derived from this name.
Seattle, WA dᶻidᶻəlalič “A little place where one crosses over” in Lushootseed. Refers to a precolonial Coast Salish village located in present-day Pioneer Square. Proper nouns are not capitalized in Lushootseed. Seattle is named for Chief Seattle, whose Lushootseed name is siʔaɫ. Also called SI¸ÁṮEM in Saanich, siʔáɬ in Klallam, and si7alh in Chinook, referring to Chief Seattle.
Sept-Îles, QC Uashat / ᐗᔕᑦ “At the bay” in Innu. Also called Mani-utenam / ᒪᓂᐅᑌᓇᒻ “Mary’s town” in Innu.
Sioux Falls, SD Íŋyaŋ Okábleča (Otȟúŋwahe) “Stone shatter (town)” in Dakota. Also called Čháŋkašdate Ȟaȟá “Waterfall fort” in Dakota.
Sitka, AK Sheet’ká in Lingít. Sheet’ká is a contraction of Shee At’iká “People on the Outside of Baranof Island.” Shee is a contraction of Sheet’-ká X’áat’l, the full Lingít name for Baranof Island. Sitka is a Lingít loanword.
Spokane, WA sƛ̓x̌etkʷ “Fast waters” in Salish. Proper nouns are not capitalized in Spokane Salish. Also called Stseqhwłkwe’ “Splashing water” in Coeur d’Alene, Tikemtuustim “Falls above” in Nez Perce, and Spuquin in Ktunaxa.
St. Johns, NL Sa’npatistek “Saint John the Baptist” in Mi’kmaq. English loanword. Also called Shintshanishit in Innu. The Mi’kmaq name for Newfoundland is Uk’taqamkuk. Major Uk’taqamkuk Mi’kmaq communities include Miawipukek (Bay d’Espoir) and Nogwamkisek (St. George’s Bay).
St. Louis, MO Shodo’ Ṭoⁿwoⁿ / 𐓇𐓪𐓰𐓪 𐓈𐓘^𐓷𐓘^ “(Auguste) Chouteau town” in Osage. Refers to the early settler outpost of Auguste Chouteau. Also called Kaⁿdatúwanę in Wyandot, Pekonoki in Meskwaki, and Penku in Shawnee. Early French settlers called it Pain Court “Short of bread,” adopted as a loanword by many tribes.
Sudbury, ON Niswaakamog “The three trails” in Ojibwe. Also called Niswakamog in Odawa.
Sydney, NS Kjikank “The big village” in Mi’kmaq.
Syracuse, NY Dyohnehdeñ’doñk “Where hemlock [Tsuga canadensis] is hanging” in Onondaga. Refers to a partially snapped hemlock branch. Also called Ganökdiyo’geh “At the good place” in Seneca.
Tacoma, WA caləłali in Lushootseed. Proper nouns are not capitalized in Lushootseed.
Tallahassee, FL Tvlvhasse “Old [stale] town” in Muscogee-Seminole. Refers to a precolonial village located in modern Myers Park, formerly called Anhaica in the Apalachee language. Anhaica was the principle village of the Apalachee. The word vhasse is only used in Muscogee to refer to bread nowadays. The nearby Lake Jackson Mounds were another significant and even earlier Indigenous site. Tallahasse is a Muscogee loanword.
Tampa, FL Tokopvkv in Tocobaga. Likely referred to the precolonial village located at Safety Harbor. Because the Tocobaga language went extinct before it developed a writing system, this name is written in the orthography of Muscogee-Seminole.
Tampico, Tamps. Tampik’o’ “Place of river dogs [otters] [Lontra longicaudis]” in Téenek. Also called Glape’n Wama’k in Comecrudo.
Tasiilaq, Greenland Tasiilaq “Place with a lake” in Tunumiisut. Formerly known as Ammassalik.
Tegucigalpa, Honduras Tegucigalpa in Lenca. Various Indigenous etymologies for Tegucigalpa have been proposed from the Nahuatl, Lenca, and Ch’orti’ languages, but none have been agreed upon as it cannot be confidently interpreted. In Lenca, Wiran Puki means “Big town,” but that does not refer exclusively to Tegucigalpa. Also called Sigala in Garifuna, a loanword.
Tepic, Nay. Tepíiki in Wixárika. Loanword from the Nahuatl name Tepicqui “Place of massive stones.” The Wixárika loan traslation of the Nahuatl name would be Teeteexi ‘Amɨnee.née “Huge Rocks.”
Thompson, MB Pâwistikohk / ᐹᐏᐢᑎᑯᕽ “Small rapids” in Swampy Cree.
Thunder Bay, ON Binesii-wiikwedong / ᐱᓀᐦᓰᐑᑵᑐᕽ “At the (thunder) bird bay” in Ojibwe. Also called Animikii-wiikwedong / ᐊᓂᒥᐦᑮᐐᑴᑐᕽ “At the thunderer bay” in Ojibwe. Thunder Bay is an Ojibwe loan translation.
Tikal Yax Mutal “First Mutal” in Màaya T’àan. Original name documented in precolonial Mayan hieroglyphs. Other cities eventually bore the name Mutal, thus the distinction of this as the first Mutal. Also called Tik’al in modern Màaya T’àan.
Toluca, Edomex. Zu̷mi in Mazahua. Also called Ptsindijets’i in Tlahuica.
Topeka, KS Dópik’è “Place to dig wild potatoes [Solanum spp.]” in Kansa. Also called Dópik^e “Potatoes dig up” in Chiwere.
Toronto, ON Biidaaboojigewaatig-agoojin “To the sawmill log-float” in Ojibwe. Also called Gichi-giiwenging “At the big homeward-[portage]” in Ojibwe, Turǫtu in Wyandot, Tkarón:to “Tree in the water there” in Mohawk, Taǫ́do’ “Log in the water” in Cayuga, and Taę:dǫh in Onondaga. Tkarón:to originally referred to the Mnjikaning Fish Weirs, 100 km to the north, and was transplanted to Toronto through the error of French settlers in the 17th century. Major nearby precolonial villages include the Jean-Baptiste Lainé, Draper, Ratcliff, and Aurora sites of the ancestral Huron/Wyandot.
Torreón, Coah. A’x Pakma’t “Much water [lagoon]” in Esto’k Gna. Reconstructed. Refers to the Comarca Lagunera, and its original inhabitants, the Laguneros.
Trois-Rivières, QC Mitaperotin in Atikamekw. Also called Ok’entondie “Three rivers” in Wendat, Madôbalodniak in Abenaki, and Ka mitapetinowok, Ka nictoctikweak, and Nicto Sipik in Atikamekw.
Tucson, AZ Chukshon “At the base of the black (mountain)” in O’odham. Refers to a precolonial O’odham village at the base of the basalt-covered Sentinel Peak. Also spelled Chukshon in the Saxton orthography. Also called Kįh Izisgo Łáné “Where there were a great many houses” in Western Apache. Tucson is an O’ohdam loanword.
Tula Mämeni in Otomi. Also called Tollan Xicohcotitlan “Near the cattails” in Nahuatl.
Tulsa, OK Daseelay / 𐓈𐓘 𐓆𐓣𐓧𐓟 “Deer [Odocoileus virginianus] tracks” in Osage. Also called Tvlse “Old town” in Muscogee, Nísni Ttáši “Water cold” in Quapaw, Tatasi / ᏔᎳᏏ in Cherokee, Tanathîheki in Sauk, and Chína Míⁿgri “Oil town” in Chiwere. Tulsa is a Muscogee loanword.
Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chis. Cowatøcmø “House of rabbits [Sylvilagus floridanus]” in Zoque. Also called Tuxta in Tzotzil, and Tochtlan “Place of rabbits” in Nahuatl.
Tzintzuntzan Ts’intsuntsani “Place of hummingbirds” in Purépecha.
Uruapan, Mich. Urhúpani “Place where everything flourishes” in Purépecha.
Utqiaġvik, AK Utqiaġvik “Place to hunt snowy owls [Bubo scandiacus]” in Iñupiatun. Formerly known as Barrow.
Uxmal Óoxmáal in Màaya T’àan.
Vancouver, BC lhq’á:lets “Wide at the bottom [of the Fraser River]” in Halkomelem. Refers to the mouth of the Fraser River. Proper nouns are not capitalized in Halkomelem. Also called K’emk’emeláý “Place where maples grow” in Squamish, and SḰX̱O¸MEŚ “Mainland” in Saanich.
Veracruz, Ver. Chalchiuhcuehtlan “Town of the jade skirt [the goddess Chalchiuhtlicue]” in Nahuatl. Also called Hag Jmøi in Chinantec.
Victoria, BC mətuliyə “Victoria” in Lekwungen. English loanword. Also called METULIYE in Saanich, and metuliyeʔ and sth’ó:mes in Halkomelem. Proper nouns are not capitalized in Lekwungen, but are fully capitalized in Saanich. The downtown area is called skwc’әŋíłč “Bitter cherry tree [Prunus emarginata],” which refers to the paths made by bitter cherry tree bark harvesters.
Villahermosa, Tab. Tä Ranchu in Chontal de Tabasco. Loanword from the Spanish “Rancho.” Also called Cualnezcaltepec in Nahuatl.
Washington, DC Nacotchtank “Trading village” in Piscataway. Refers to a precolonial village on the east bank of the Anacostia River. Anacostia is derived from this name. Also called Hanödagányasgeh “Where he who destroys towns [the president] is” in Seneca, and Anatakáriasne “Where he who destroys towns [the president] is” in Mohawk.
Waskaganish, QC Waaskaahiikanish / ᐙᔅᑳᐦᐄᑲᓂᔥ “Little house” in Southeast Cree. Formerly known as Rupert House or Fort Rupert.
Whitehorse, YT Kwänlin “Running water through canyon” in Southern Tutchone. Refers to the Yukon River.
Wichita, KS Ki:ckharikwitati “Village with a lid on” in Wichita. Refers to grass houses which had round roofs rather than the more common style with poles protruding from the roofs.
Winnipeg, MB Wiinibiigong “At the putrid waters” in Ojibwe. Also called Miníša “Red water” in Assinboine, Gaa-okosing “Place Where It’s in a Pile” and Maadaawaang “At the forks” in Ojibwe, and Mâtâwâhk “At the Forks,” Mēhkwākamēw-sīpīy “Blood-flowed down this river,” Wînipêk / ᐑᓂpᐞᐠ “Body of muddy water,” and Win-nīpīy “Murky water” in Cree.
Wishram Village Nixlúidix “Coming together place” in Kiksht. Also called Wɨ́shx̱am in Yakima Sahaptin.
Xalapa, Ver. Xalapan “Place of sandy water” in Nahuatl. Nahuatl glyph depicts a sandy riverbed.
Yakima, WA Páxutakyuut “Heads joined” in Sahaptin. Refers to Union Gap where the bluffs appear to be leaning out toward one another. The word Yakima is derived from Iyakíma “Pregnant ones.” Also called Yákmu in Yakama Sahaptin, and c̓awqʷ in Lushootseed.
Yellowknife, NT Sǫ̀mbak’è “Money place” in Tlicho. Also called Beghúledesche “Inconnu [Stenodus nelma] confluence” in Denesuline, and Sómba Gų́lį and Meghúlidehche in Dene K’e.
Zacatecas, Zac. Zacatlan “Place of fodder grass” in Nahuatl. Originally referred more broadly to the entire territory of the Zacatec people. Also called Zakateka in Otomi. The Nahuatl glyph depicts three stems of grass.
Printing
Just as this knowledge was gifted to us, the map is a gift we hope people will print and hang in schools, community centers, and anywhere it can help start a dialogue. Anyone can download and print the map under the Creative Commons NonCommercial license. At this time we don’t have any direct partnerships to facilitate ordering or printing posters. Third-party printers are our recommendation for making prints. Bring the downloaded map on a thumb drive to a print shop, or have them download it for you, or use an online service like shortrunposters.com.
Available formats for printing:
• Map With Index PNG • Map With Index PDF • Map Without Index PNG • Map Without Index PDF •
The base dimensions of the map with the index are 17.72″ x 12.8″ at 300 PPI. If you have a large-format plotter, print the map with a paper roll 36″ wide. This size will leave ample margins around the map for trimming. Printing on photo satin (semi-gloss) paper with light-fast dyes that resist fading will produce the best results.
Permissions
These place names are the intellectual and cultural property of the Indigenous people on whose territories they are located. They are shared here thanks to the dedication of hundreds of Indigenous elders, language-keepers, and tribal historians who generously shared their time and knowledge, including:
Adrienne Heavy Head, Alan Leventhal, Alison McBride, Amber Hayward, Andrea Hunter, Andrew Cowell, Angel Sobotta, Angela Christmas, Anne Tahamont, Arden Ogg, Arok Wolvengrey, Arlene Millich, Bill Quackenbush, Billy Attachie, Blaire Gould, Brenda Lintinger, Bryan Gordon, Byron Vinicio Socorec Yucute, Carlyle Hinshaw, Charles Lippert, Chris Parkin, Chris Toya, Dakota Wind Goodhouse, Damian Garcia, Danielle Wood, Dave Costa, David Mora-Marin, David Rood, David Kaufman, Delores Lujan, Desiree Storm Jones, Dirk Elzinga, Donald Hart, Du Aaní Kawdinook Xh’unei, Edward Chretien Jr., Eric Spitty, Etcho Jou’wa, Ethan Neerdaels, Fermín Tapia, Gabe Paul, Garry Njootli, Gary Holton, Gary McAdams, Georgette McLeod, Gilbert Sewell, Graham Richard, Guido Martinez Clemente Francisco, Hadrien Coumans, Harry Winters, Hayden King, Henry Zenk, Hugo Servando Sánche, Hutke Fields, Ian Custalow, Ian Thompson, Jack Martin, Jacky Snyder, Jan Morrow, Jay Meacham, Jeremy Mohawk, Jennie Tait, Jessie Plueard, Jesús José Reyes Jr., Jim Rementer, Jimm Goodtracks, Joe Grimes, Joey Awonohopay, John Boyle, John Currahee, John Dyson, John Garcia, John Hewson, John Lutz, John Sullivan, Johnny Rice Jr., Jonathan Cordero, Jorge Estevez, Jorge Garifuna, Jorge Lemus, Josep Jeddore, Joseph Elie Joubert, Joshua Hinson, Juan Mancias, Judie Maxwell, Justin McBride, Justin Southworth, Kara Perry, Karen Hildreth, Kay Fowler, Karonhí:io Delaronde, Keith Cunningham, Kristielyn Jones, Kyle Malott, Kyle Napier, Lana Lowe, Lion G. Miles, Lucia Estrellita Fugaz, Luis Barragan, Luke Campbell, Lynn Peplinski, Margaret Anderson, Marguerite MacKenzie, Maria Rocha, Marianna Di Paolo, Marla Pete, Marsha Wynecoop, Mary Allison, Mary LeBlanc, Mervin Savoy, Michael Rondeau, Michele Balagot, Michon Eben, Miguel Acosta, Miguel Ángel Quesada-Pacheco, Monica Arellano, Nadine Martin, Nakia Williamson, Nally Weetaluktuk, Natalia Hernández, Nate Lujan, Nelson Harjo, Nicole Martin, Noel Shutz, Nojoch Máak Andy Chuc, Osage Language Department, Osage Traditional Cultural Advisors Committee, Pamela Munro, Pat Moore, Phyllis Grant, Ramon Vasquez, Raul Ahumada, Rhonda Richardson, Richard Begay, Robbie Jimerson, Robert Leavitt, Rodney McCoy, Romola Thumbadoo, Rory Larson, Ruben Reyes, Ryan Heavy Head, Sam Brown, Samantha Holland, Sara Rodriguez, Sarah O’Donnell, Scott Berthiaume, Scott Collins, Sharon Sylestine Miller, Sherry White, Solomon Ratt, Stacey Burns, Stefan Liedtke, Stefanie Ramos-Bierge, Sterling Street, Steven Crowchild, Teanna Limpy, Ted Gottfriedson, Ted Hernandez, Ted Isham, Teresa Billy, Thubini Mästöhö, Tobine Alec, Tom Givón, Tom Willett, Tony Chavarria, Travis Stewart, Tureygua Inaru, Ukallaysaaq Okleasik, Verena Hofmann, Victoria Bricker, Watie Atkins, William Dick, Yoreme Locochon, Yuni Kim, and Zipporah Ungalaq.
The Cartographer
Jordan Engel founded the Decolonial Atlas in 2014 after living on the Pine Ridge Reservation and learning Lakota place names from Chief Henry Red Cloud. Unable to find accurate information about Indigenous toponymy back home in Ga’sgöhsagöh, he eventually learned the original name of the city thanks to the Seneca Language Department. This began a decade-long project of contacting tribal language programs to create a catalog of Indigenous geospatial knowledge, ranging from place names to traditional forms of mapmaking. He is currently studying urban planning and GIS in Manaháhtaan, Lenape Territory.
Special Thanks
This map would not have been possible without the guidance and assistance of Hans van der Maarel from OneStopMap, Dr. Margaret Pearce, Dr. Luisa Maffi, Chief Henry Red Cloud, David Gross and the Decolonial Atlas collective.
The Decolonial Atlas 